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88 Text B During the Middle Ages, from the 5 th to the 15 th century, dentistry was not a profession in itself. By the 12 th century monks (монахи) had performed dental procedures. However in the early 12 th century monks were prohibited to perform operations. Then barbers (цирюльники) began to practice dentistry. They not only cut hair but also extracted teeth. In the 18th century dentistry became more scientifc. It began to take its modern form in 1728 when Frenchman, Pierre Fauchard [fou′ ʃ a:r], published his book The Surgeon Dentist . In his book he described the anat‑ omy of teeth and the jaws, various operative and restorative techniques, and effectively separated dentistry from surgery. That’s why Pierre Fauchard was called «the father of modern dentistry». He used dental prostheses, in‑ troduced dental fllings as treatment for dental caries and also explained that acids from sugar are a major source of tooth decay. The 19 th century witnessed several developments that revolutionized the fild. Organized dentistry began in 1840 when the world’s frst den‑ tal school, the Baltimore College of Dental School, opened in Baltimore, Maryland (the USA). The use of general anaesthesia in dentistry began in 1844 when Connecticut dentist Horace Wells frst used nitrous oxide (or laughing gas) to relieve pain during a dental procedure. In 1890 American dentist and the frst oral microbiologist Willough‑ by D. Miller discovered that caries is caused by acids produced by oral bac‑ teria. Miller’s work played an important role in preventing dental caries. The invention of the X‑ray in 1895 by German physicist Wilhelm C. Roent‑ gen helped dentists to examine teeth for hidden cavities and decay. The frst dental X‑ray was made in 1896. Text C The greatest achievements of the mod‑ ern dentistry began in the early 1900s. One of the achievements was the inven‑ tion of Novocaine in 1901. It helped to provide pain free dental procedures. The other achievement was the discov‑ ery that fluoride prevented caries. Scien‑